• Miguel Pina e Cunha
• Joao Vieira da Cunha
• Ken N Kamochel

Learning Curve Organizational Improvisation as a concept Why it is emerging as the new focus of attention Degrees and forms of improvisation Managerial implications

The strategies and actions of organizations that are finally realized are not just a function of the organizations' explicit or implicit intentions. Examples of such strategies and actions are new product development, corporate restructuring or entering a new market. Unintended or unpredictable consequences may result from organizations' actions. These may not be only due to the impact of environmental uncertainties.
Managers thus need to be aware of this emergent aspect of organizational actions since this impinges on the performance outcomes of any organization. Organizational improvisation is coming up as a solution to this challenge of controlling the emergent part of actions.

WHAT IS THE MEANING OF
ORGANIZATIONAL IMPROVISATION?
Organizational improvisation, as a concept, gained prominence in the latter half of the 1990s. It owes its moorings to activities such as jazz and improvisational theatre, in which improvisation is standard practice.
These activities served as metaphors to generate characteristics of improvisation that could be used in organizational settings.
Improvisation is organizational since an organization and/or its members carry it out. Organizational improvisation is the conception of action as it unfolds, by an organization and/or its members, drawing on available material, cognitive, affective and social resources.
Put simply, improvisation is to make something from whatever materials are currently available. Organizational improvisation is thus using whatever resources and repertoire the organization has to perform the task it faces.
For improvisation to take place, the organization must already possess a set of resources such as a plan of action, knowledge or a social structure, on which newer actions can be taken. Since organizational response, in this concept, is in real time, the organization does not (and cannot) wait for optimal resources, but has to make do with whatever is currently available.
Improvisation involves the convergence between conception and execution. 'Action as it unfolds' connotes three aspects. The most important is that improvisation is deliberate, i.e., it is intended by the organization. The second aspect is that improvisation is extemporaneous, i.e., the organization cannot plan for it and it occurs during attempts by the organization to make the emergent part of its strategy or action more deliberate. Thirdly, improvisation occurs during action, i.e., the organization cannot stop to hit upon the best way to solve a problem or to exploit an opportunity, but has to develop solutions while acting on the problems. The correctnes of such actions can be judged only post facto.
As already mentioned earlier, since improvisational action uses available resources, the members of the organization must have thorough knowledge of these resources and must be able to skillfully exploit them.
In jazz music, examples of such resources are the instruments, the affective mood of the group, and the score (song) itself. In the organizational context, such resources can be grouped under four broad heads.

Material resources lie outside the social system of the individual and the organization. Some examples are information systems, financial resources, and buildings. Cognitive resources are made up of the set of mental models of the individuals in the organization. Mental models may be either explicit or implicit and can be acquired both within and outside the organization. Affective resources are made up of the emotional states of the improvisers. Emotional interconnectedness of the members of the group helps improvisation succeed. Social resources are made up of the social structures among members performing improvisation. Such structures are not just formal relationships, but are also made up of explicit or tacit rules and patterns of interaction. Such structures are social since they are also a result of social processes outside the organization.

DEGREES AND FORMS OF
IMPROVISATION
Varying degrees of improvisation can be observed in organizations. A continuum of action, with spur-of-the-moment action on one extreme and completely planned action on the other, can be visualized. Hierarchies can also be built on this continuum of action. For example, a four-level hierarchy where the levels are interpretation, embellishment, variation, and improvisation, has been suggested. The first level of interpretation is the one in which plans are strictly followed. Embellishment involves the rephrasing of plans, but these are still recognizable. Variation is the level in which unplanned actions are introduced, but the original plan is still adhered to. The fourth and last level of improvisation involves radical departure from original plans. Treating only such radical departures as improvisations has its pitfalls and consensus is now building around including limited variations too under the category of improvisations, since the cumulative effect of such variations is the bringing about of large changes in organizations.
Improvisation also assumes various types. Collective improvisation involves the coming together of several individuals, groups and/or organizations. In individual improvisation, only a single person puts in the effort to improvise. Product improvisations affect the nature of products of the organization whereas process improvisations deal with the content, character and sequence of organizational routines. Behavioural improvisation refers to novel actions taken that affect organizational outcomes, whereas cognitive improvisation leads to new interpretations of external stimuli.

Related constructs

Creativity: The creation of a valuable, useful new product, service, idea, procedure, or process by individuals working together in a complex social system. Adaptation: The adjustment to external conditions. Innovation: The adoption of any device, system, process, problem, program, product or service that is new to the organization. Learning: Happens when forgetting, concealing and silencing hide a new set of continuities and in their place create new categories, different meaning and more organization.

 

 

WHEN DOES ORGANIZATIONAL
IMPROVISATION HAPPEN?
Organizations face unexpected occurrences for which they are not ready with a plan of action, but which nevertheless require fast action. It is such situations faced that make the organization improvise.

Since improvisational action uses available resources,the members of the organization must have thorough knowledge of these resources and must be able to skillfully exploit them

Improvisation takes place only if the unexpected event that occurs is perceived by the organization as important, and as within its span of action. Events unimportant to the organization will not coax it to take action. For example, a book publisher will not take action if a new firm enters the automobile industry, whereas a car manufacturer would. Also, the car manufacturer would be motivated to act only if it is convinced that it can do something about it.
It is not sufficient that important and actionable events occur to trigger improvisation. There is an additional need for the organization to perceive the new phenomenon as unexpected and unplanned for. For example, lags in demand are important and actionable, but can be planned for many months in advance. The organization should not possess any plan of action to tackle unexpected events. Only then will improvisation surface.

Unexpected and unplanned for events can happen externally, in the environment, or internally, in the organization. The causes of such events depend on the perspective of reality employed. The first perspective considers reality to be objective and existing independently of the subject. The second assumes reality to be subjective, socially constructed and contingent to the subject.
When the organization and its environment are considered as objective realities, improvisation becomes necessary due to an unexpected mismatch between planned for and actually perceived organizational or environmental conditions. This mismatch can either be thrust on the organization or can be created by it. Such a mismatch, thrust on an organization, may stem from two areas. One is the unexpected, emergent states of the environment. The second is fortuity or luck that presents unexpected opportunities or threats to the organization.

When reality is taken as subjective and socially constructed, improvisation occurs due to an unexpected mismatch between expectations and the enacted environmental conditions

Such a mismatch, thrust on an organization, may stem from two areas. One is the unexpected, emergent states of the environment. The second is fortuity or luck that presents unexpected opportunities or threats to the organization.

Organizations create this mismatch through new vision or through their flawed mental models. Dissatisfaction with the current state goads the organization to develop a new vision for itself. This new vision presents a new state of future reality to the members of the organization and encourages them to act towards bridging the gap between the current state and this desirable future state. Though a part of the actions taken is planned, there is a substantial proportion of emergent action in such situations, which is ripe for improvisation. Mental models of the organizational members about themselves, and their relationships with their environment may be flawed. This may be due to the ignoring of influential actors, factors or relationships, considering irrelevant ones among these as important, misconceiving influential factors or relationships, and considering the environment as a series of linear/cause-and-effect relationships when in reality it is systemic/circular in nature.
When reality is taken as subjective and socially constructed, improvisation occurs due to an unexpected mismatch between expectations and the enacted environmental conditions. Environments are enacted by organizations and their members. Whenever a new environment gets enacted, improvisation may become necessary. In such situations the organization attempts to change its actual environment to fit its assumed environment.

The most important condition for improvisation to occur, given that an unexpected, unplanned for, actionable and important event has taken place, is the perception by the organization of speed of action. Speed can be necessitated both internally and externally. Internal pushes of speedy action are no-exception milestones that may be explicitly stated or implicitly enforced throughout the organization. ughout the organization. External pulls emanate from the environment, which has fast, competitive action.

HOW DOES ORGANIZATIONAL IMPROVISATION HAPPEN?
An organization must satisfy some conditions in order to be able to improvise. Also there are certain factors that affect the improvisation's effectiveness.Three important conditions that enable the carrying out of improvisation are an experimental culture, a minimal structure, and a low procedural memory. An experimental culture consists of a set of values and beliefs that encourage experimentation as a means to deal with organizational reality. This culture is tolerant of errors. Organizations with such cultures promote innovation and accept failures on the path to innovation. Such a culture rewards people who make competent mistakes, i.e., the mistakes resulting from novel ideas and not from flawed action. Such competent mistakes are made role models for other organizational members to emulate. A sense of urgency is another value that is characteristic of an experimental culture. This is crucial for fast action to take place, a necessary condition for improvisation.
A minimal structure refers to the set of controls used to achieve the efficient effectiveness of improvisation. Third-order controls, i.e., indirect controls using culture or ideology, appear to be most useful for improvisation. But this does not mean that first-order (direct supervision) and second-order (standardization) controls are not useful in this task. The most important characteristic of a control for improvisers is the invisibility of the control. First-order controls through delegation, being sufficiently invisible, promote improvisation. Second-order controls can be made invisible by blending them with the production technology itself.

Three important conditions that enable the carrying out of improvisation are an experimental culture, a minimal structure, and a low procedural memory

Two other elements play a key role in ensuring minimal structures. Short-term milestones should be set to maintain the sense of urgency that leads to improvisation. Milestones serve as feedback mechanisms that highlight progress made as well as any deviations/misperceptions. They are good motivators and help build up the momentum among improvisers.
The third important condition for improvisation to occur is low procedural memory/small number of routines. Procedural memory is the set of routines the organization already possesses for carrying out any task. If such routines to tackle any situation already exist, improvisation is unlikely, since it is inefficient to search for alternative routines and the response processes being automatic and unconscious may not expose the need for any improvisation.
Let us next focus on the factors that determine the extent and quality of improvisation. These factors are leadership, member characteristics, information flow, memory-related factors, organizational configuration, and resources.
Leadership affects the degree and effectiveness of organizational improvisation. A rotating leadership style and a serving leadership style favour improvisation. Organizations face growing complexity and problems of an interdisciplinary nature. This calls for various competencies and knowledge. When each person is asked to give inputs for the ongoing improvisation, it is akin to rotational leadership since each person's knowledge and skills help fill specific gaps in the complex situation. A serving leader improves the quality of improvisation. He acts as the steward of his followers as well as of the purpose of the organization.
Members' characteristics also play a significant role in organizational improvisation. The first important characteristic is the level of performative skill possessed by each member. An improviser must also be creative. Creativity is the second trait of importance that leads to radically different practices. The third important characteristic among organizational members is the degree of their diversity. Homogeneity of the population leads to lower levels of improvisation. The final characteristic of significance is the ability of the members to deal with the affective element of their performance. The anxieties that result from improvisational efforts need to be addressed in such a manner that such efforts bear fruit.

Improvisation helps organizations to be flexible and adaptive in turbulent environments without the necessity of being purely organic or structureless

The degree and quality of organizational improvisation are also affected by the factors related to information flow. These factors may pertain to the information flow between the organization and its environment or the factors related to information flow within the organization. Fluid communication within the organization is paramount in aiding improvisation. It helps members perceive events in a uniform and focused manner.
Memory-related factors too play a role in determining the extent and quality of improvisation. Organizational memory has two components - procedural memory is the knowledge of action and declarative memory is the knowledge of facts. The higher the declarative memory of an organization, the broader and richer will be its base for creativity and improvisation. Making members practice improvisation in simulated, safe environments can enlarge the procedural memory base for the competence of improvisation. Organizational members must also be willing to depart from memory. Only this will help them improvise.

Positive outcomes of organizational improvisation

Flexibility Learning Higher motivation to work Higher motivation to improvise Affective outcomes: Transcendence Affective outcomes: Team building

Organizational configuration affects the processes and outcomes of organizational improvisation. A close and trusting relationship among members helps improvisation. The existence of collateral structures is another element of organizational configuration that encourages improvisation. Such structures allow members to generate and develop ideas that lead to improvisation, and also provide the space for practicing improvisation in safe arenas, before using it in real life. Group size also plays a role in determining the degree of improvisation. Large groups hinder improvisation.
The last factor that influences improvisation is the resources available in the organization. Specialized resources hamper improvisation while general-purpose resources encourage it due to their flexibility of usage.

Negative outcomes of organizational improvisation

Negative outcomes of organizational improvisation Biased learning Opportunity traps Amplification of emergent action Addictiveness to improvisation Increased anxiety

 

MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS OF
ORGANIZATIONAL IMPROVISATION
Improvisation helps organizations to be flexible and adaptive in turbulent environments without the necessity of being purely organic or structureless. It also allows the simultaneous pursuit of both efficiency and effectiveness. The organization, through exploration, can detect change, and can then respond to it by exploitation. Improvisation in bureaucratic organizations is a challenging job, as it involves very high levels of member involvement and autonomy.
An organization with improvisation capabilities cannot be created instantaneously. This capability has to be nurtured and grown. Jettisoning stored procedural memory, a requisite for improvisation, is a difficult task. This is due to the cognitive limitations of the human mind. Nevertheless, this has to be fulfilled if organizational improvisation is to take root.The practice of using multifunctionall teams is also not conducive to improvisation, since the constituent team members are from various and diverse professional backgrounds. Ultimately, the executive/manager has to play the role of an able leader by portraying environmental changes in a manner that does not trigger defensive routines in organizational members, and helps them resolve challenges through improvisation.

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